Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

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Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Ben C. Smith »

Herodotus sometimes translates foreign names of people, places, or deities into Greek:

It is in honour of Isis, who is called in the Greek tongue Demeter.

[Oasis] is distant from Thebes seven days' journey across the sand, and is called in our tongue "the Island of the Blessed."

On leaving this city, and again mounting the stream, in the same space of time which it took you to reach the capital from Elephantine, you come to the Deserters, who bear the name of Asmach. This word, translated into our language, means "the men who stand on the left hand of the king."

The source of this bitter spring is on the borders of the Scythian Husbandmen, where they adjoin upon the Alazonians; and the place where it rises is called in the Scythic tongue Exampaeus, which means in our language, "The Sacred Ways."

In the Scythic tongue Vesta is called Tabiti, Jupiter (very properly, in my judgment) Papaeus, Tellus Apia, Apollo Oetosyrus, Celestial Venus Artimpasa, and Neptune Thamimasadas.

I show this preference to them, inasmuch as for this service Theomestor was made tyrant of Samos by the Persians, which Phylacus was enrolled among the king's benefactors, and presented with a large estate in land. In the Persian tongue the king's benefactors are called Orosangs.

Some of these examples are not really translations, per se; they are equivalences (like Demeter for Isis).

But I cannot find where Herodotus actually places foreign phrases on people's lips in order to translate them (or not). He will mention sometimes that somebody is speaking a certain language, but he does not actually quote the foreign language:

Overtaken in his flight by one of the Persians, who was about to run him through, he cried aloud in the Persian tongue that he was Histiaeus the Milesian.

After the feast was ended, and the drinking had begun, the Persian who shared Thersander's couch addressed him in the Greek tongue, and inquired of him from what city he came.

Tacitus gives us very few if any translations. Like Herodotus, he will tell us sometimes that somebody is speaking a certain language, but he does not quote that language:

Meanwhile one of the enemy, acquainted with the Roman tongue, spurred his horse up to the entrenchments, and in a loud voice promised in the name of Arminius to all deserters wives and lands with daily pay of a hundred sesterces as long as war lasted.

Women excited to frenzy prophesied impending destruction; ravings in a strange tongue, it was said, were heard in their Senate-house.

Josephus is similar to Herodotus:

And that the seventh day was a rest, and a release from the labor of such operations; whence it is that we Celebrate a rest from our labors on that day, and call it the Sabbath, which word denotes rest in the Hebrew tongue.

This man was called Adam, which in the Hebrew tongue signifies one that is red, because he was formed out of red earth, compounded together; for of that kind is virgin and true earth.

Now a woman is called in the Hebrew tongue Issa; but the name of this woman was Eve, which signifies the mother of all living.

Now Lea was sorely troubled at her husband's love to her sister; and she expected she should be better esteemed if she bare him children: so she entreated God perpetually; and when she had borne a son, and her husband was on that account better reconciled to her, she named her son Reubel, because God had had mercy upon her, in giving her a son, for that is the signification of this name. After some time she bare three more sons; Simeon, which name signifies that God had hearkened to her prayer. Then she bare Levi, the confirmer of their friendship. After him was born Judah, which denotes thanksgiving. But Rachel, fearing lest the fruitfulness of her sister should make herself enjoy a lesser share of Jacob's affections, put to bed to him her handmaid Bilha; by whom Jacob had Dan: one may interpret that name into the Greek tongue, a divine judgment. And after him Nephthalim, as it were, unconquerable in stratagems, since Rachel tried to conquer the fruitfulness of her sister by this stratagem. Accordingly, Lea took the same method, and used a counter-stratagem to that of her sister; for she put to bed to him her own handmaid. Jacob therefore had by Zilpha a son, whose name was Gad, which may be interpreted fortune; and after him Asher, which may be called a happy man, because he added glory to Lea. Now Reubel, the eldest son of Lea, brought apples of mandrakes to his mother. When Rachel saw them, she desired that she would give her the apples, for she longed to eat them; but when she refused, and bid her be content that she had deprived her of the benevolence she ought to have had from her husband, Rachel, in order to mitigate her sister's anger, said she would yield her husband to her; and he should lie with her that evening. She accepted of the favor, and Jacob slept with Lea, by the favor of Rachel. She bare then these sons: Issachar, denoting one born by hire: and Zabulon, one born as a pledge of benevolence towards her; and a daughter, Dina. After some time Rachel had a son, named Joseph, which signified there should be another added to him.

He also commanded him to be called Israel, which in the Hebrew tongue signifies one that struggled with the divine angel. These promises were made at the prayer of Jacob; for when he perceived him to be the angel of God, he desired he would signify to him what should befall him hereafter. And when the angel had said what is before related, he disappeared; but Jacob was pleased with these things, and named the place Phanuel, which signifies, the face of God.

Now the former of those names, Gersom, in the Hebrew tongue, signifies that he was in a strange land; and Eleazer, that, by the assistance of the God of his fathers, he had escaped from the Egyptians.

Now the Hebrews call this food manna, for the particle man, in our language, is the asking of a question: "What is this?"

There was also an ark made, sacred to God, of wood that was naturally strong, and could not be corrupted. This was called Eron in our own language.

Over against this table, near the southern wall, was set a candlestick of cast gold, hollow within, being of the weight of one hundred pounds, which the Hebrews call Chinchare; if it be turned into the Greek language, it denotes a talent.

But in the void place of this garment there was inserted a piece of the bigness of a span, embroidered with gold, and the other colors of the ephod, and was called Essen, which in the Greek language signifies the Oracle.

It was composed of a narrow tube, somewhat thicker than a flute, but with so much breadth as was sufficient for admission of the breath of a man's mouth: it ended in the form of a bell, like common trumpets. Its sound was called in the Hebrew tongue Asosra.

But the affairs of the Canaanites were at this thee in a flourishing condition, and they expected the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having put the government into the hands of Adonibezek, which name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the Hebrew tongue signifies Lord.

God was willing also hereby the more to subdue their obstinacy and ingratitude towards himself: so when at length they were become penitent, and were so wise as to learn that their calamities arose from their contempt of the laws, they besought Deborah, a certain prophetess among them, which name in the Hebrew tongue signifies a Bee, to pray to God to take pity on them, and not to overlook them, now they were ruined by the Canaanites. So God granted them deliverance, and chose them a general, Barak, one that was of the tribe of Naphtali. Now Barak, in the Hebrew tongue, signifies Lightning.

So Samuel gathered them together to a certain city called Mizpeh, which, in the Hebrew tongue, signifies a watch-tower; there they drew water, and poured it out to God, and fasted all day, and betook themselves to their prayers.

She was then met by David as she was descending a hill, who was coming against Nabal with four hundred men. When the woman saw David, she leaped down from her ass, and fell on her face, and bowed down to the ground; and entreated him not to bear in mind the words of Nabal, since he knew that he resembled his name. Now Nabal, in the Hebrew tongue, signifies folly.

But as soon as Abner, the son of Ner, who was general of Saul's army, and a very active man, and good-natured, knew that the king, and Jonathan, and his two other sons, were fallen in the battle, he made haste into the camp; and taking away with him the remaining son of Saul, whose name was Ishbosheth, he passed over to the land beyond Jordan, and ordained him the king of the whole multitude, excepting the tribe of Judah; and made his royal seat in a place called in our own language Mahanaim, but in the language of the Grecians, The Camps; from whence Abner made haste with a select body of soldiers, to fight with such of the tribe of Judah as were disposed to it, for he was angry that this tribe had set up David for their king.

And besides these, he granted him certain cities of Galilee, twenty in number, that lay not far from Tyre; which, when Hiram went to, and viewed, and did not like the gift, he sent word to Solomon that he did not want such cities as they were; and after that time these cities were called the land of Cabul; which name, if it be interpreted according to the language of the Phoenicians, denotes what does not please.

Pharaoh, in the Egyptian tongue, signifies a king but I suppose they made use of other names from their childhood; but when they were made kings, they changed them into the name which in their own tongue denoted their authority.

Solomon made all these things for the honor of God, with great variety and magnificence, sparing no cost, but using all possible liberality in adorning the temple; and these things he dedicated to the treasures of God. He also placed a partition round about the temple, which in our tongue we call Gison, but it is called Thrigcos by the Greeks, and he raised it up to the height of three cubits; and it was for the exclusion of the multitude from coming into the temple, and showing that it was a place that was free and open only for the priests.

And when he thereupon sent them, and the people were by them taught the laws, and the holy worship of God, they worshipped him in a respectful manner, and the plague ceased immediately; and indeed they continue to make use of the very same customs to this very time, and are called in the Hebrew tongue Cutlans, but in the Greek tongue Samaritans.

It reached to a place called Sapha, which name, translated into Greek, signifies a prospect, for you have thence a prospect both of Jerusalem and of the temple.

To the usual names of people and places he adds the sabbath concept and a title or two. Also, I have found one spot so far in which he actually quotes somebody, ever so briefly (a single word), in the Hebrew language:

When Ruth was come with her mother-in-law to Bethlehem, Booz, who was near of kin to Elimelech, entertained her; and when Naomi was so called by her fellow citizens, according to her true name, she said, "You might more truly call me Mara." Now Naomi signifies in the Hebrew tongue happiness, and Mara, sorrow.

And he translates the mysterious words of Daniel 5.25 for his readers:

And he explained the writing thus:" MANEH. This, if it be expounded in the Greek language, may signify a Number, because God hath numbered so long a time for thy life, and for thy government, and that there remains but a small portion. THEKEL This signifies a weight, and means that God hath weighed thy kingdom in a balance, and finds it going down already.--PHARES. This also, in the Greek tongue, denotes a fragment,. God will therefore break thy kingdom in pieces, and divide it among the Medes and Persians."

But, then again, so does Daniel (5.26-28).

Josephus, then, for the most part seems to follow the pattern of Herodotus when it comes to quoting foreign languages being spoken by foreign figures:

When Rabshakeh had made this speech in the Hebrew tongue, for he was skillful in that language, Eliakim was afraid lest the multitude that heard him should be disturbed; so he desired him to speak in the Syrian tongue. But the general, understanding what he meant, and perceiving the fear that he was in, he made his answer with a greater and a louder voice, but in the Hebrew tongue; and said....

As this man was walking before Susa, the metropolis of the Persians, he heard some strangers that were entering the city, after a long journey, speaking to one another in the Hebrew tongue; so he went to them, and asked them whence they came.

As to his own court, therefore, if any one was not very obsequious to him in his language, and would not confess himself to be his slave, or but seemed to think of any innovation in his government, he was not able to contain himself, but prosecuted his very kindred and friends, and punished them as if they were enemies and this wickedness he undertook out of a desire that he might be himself alone honored.

He tells us that a certain language is being used, but does not quote the language as spoken by the figure in his history.

When we come to the gospels, however, especially the gospel of Mark, things are different:

Mark 5.41: 41 And taking the child by the hand, He said to her, "Talitha kum!" (which translated means, "Little girl, I say to you, arise!").

Mark 7.10-11: 10 [Jesus continued,] "For Moses said, 'Honor your father and your mother'; and, 'He who speaks evil of father or mother, let him be put to death'; 11 but you say, 'If a man says to his father or his mother, anything of mine you might have been helped by is corban (that is to say, given to God),' 12 you no longer permit him to do anything for his father or his mother; 13 thus invalidating the word of God by your tradition which you have handed down; and you do many things such as that."

Mark 7.34: 34 ...and looking up to heaven with a deep sigh, He said to him, "Ephphatha!" that is, "Be opened!"

Mark 14.36: 36 And He was saying, "Abba! Father! All things are possible for Thee; remove this cup from Me; yet not what I will, but what Thou wilt."

Mark 15.34: 34 And at the ninth hour Jesus cried out with a loud voice, "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" This is translated, "My God, My God, why hast Thou forsaken Me?"

Mark also puts the foreign words Beelzebul (3.22), rabboni (10.51), hosanna (11.9-10), and rabbi (11.21) on people's lips in his gospel, though without translating them. All of these are in addition to the more conventional (compared to the other writers I have scanned, anyway) translations of people's names (Boanerges, 3.17) and of place names (Golgotha, 15.22).

Besides other Christian texts, what Greek texts exist which follows this Marcan pattern? I mean, I know about Romans 8.15 and Galatians 4.6. But are there other texts which tend to quote foreign words (preferably fairly ordinary words, as we find in Mark, even if emotionally charged) on the lips of characters or figures? If so, what are they? Are there Latin texts which do this?

Ben.

PS: I am aware that the Hebrew scriptures frequently give us the meaning (whether accurate or not) of the names given to newborn children or to places where something special has happened, but that is not the same thing, since no foreign language is involved; besides, those are names of people or places, just as we find in Herodotus.
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Ben C. Smith »

I recall that Cicero sprinkles his epistles with Greek words. For example:

Cicero, Epistles to Atticus 1.1.5: 5 Hermathena tua valde me delectat et posita ita belle est ut totum gymnasium eius ἀνάθημα esse videatur. multum te amamus. / 5 The Hermathena you sent I am delighted with: it has been placed with such charming effect that the whole gymnasium seems arranged especially for it.

This intellectual use of the coveted Greek language strikes me as similar to how Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot throw phrases in all kinds of languages (Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Sanskrit, Chinese) into their poetry. It also strikes me as rather different than the purposes to which the evangelists put their use of Hebrew or Aramaic words, though the exact nature of the difference(s) will require some thought.
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by pavurcn »

One possible interpretation of the use of the original language in Mark, ptc for Jesus's own statements: the verba ipsissima indicate the impress of the original sources (both the narrators and the story's main character). This is the way the story about Jesus was repeatedly told to a group speaking another language. It is also a realistic touch, an indicator that this is the way the events originally happened. Rhetorically, the usage makes the remembering more concrete and therefore believable to the audience. And it is a detail that makes the original dramatis persona more present to the listener.
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by andrewcriddle »

It is possible that the exact words used by Jesus in healing were regarded as significant in a quasi-magical way and preserved in pre-Markan tradition for that reason.

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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Ben C. Smith »

pavurcn wrote: Fri Jan 19, 2018 10:00 pm One possible interpretation of the use of the original language in Mark, ptc for Jesus's own statements: the verba ipsissima indicate the impress of the original sources (both the narrators and the story's main character). This is the way the story about Jesus was repeatedly told to a group speaking another language. It is also a realistic touch, an indicator that this is the way the events originally happened. Rhetorically, the usage makes the remembering more concrete and therefore believable to the audience. And it is a detail that makes the original dramatis persona more present to the listener.
That is possible. But are there other ancient texts which do this same thing? I am trying to find analogies. The closest (and only) analogy I have so far is that one single passage in Josephus dealing with the book of Ruth (and the word Mara).
andrewcriddle wrote: Sat Jan 20, 2018 4:18 am It is possible that the exact words used by Jesus in healing were regarded as significant in a quasi-magical way and preserved in pre-Markan tradition for that reason.
Again, quite possible. But are there other ancient texts or traditions which do this same thing?
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Stuart »

Mark's cases are all parenthetical, and obviously that book's author's additions. They have the feel of being a gimmick for the audience, as in, "see this really happened in the Aramaic speaking part of the world, and these people were Jews." They serve no other purpose but color.

The only curious one to me is that Matthew/Mark have Jesus refer to his father as Elohim (Eloi/Eli) rather than Yahweh. Again just color.

There are two others of note: 1 Corinthians 16:22 μαρὰν ἀθά (I judge this post Marcionite deutero-Pauline, not original, but I love the phrase ἤτω ἀνάθεμα. Μαρὰν ἀθά as a great rhyming rebuke which really flows off the tongue); and Acts 9:36 μαθήτρια ὀνόματι Ταβειθά, ἣ διερμηνευομένη λέγεται Δορκάς. Tabitha is the name which stuck in English, as a woman's name, and Dorkas didn't make the cut (Dorkus sounds like it belongs with Doofus). 1 Corinthians 16:22 is the only case where Aramaic is actually functionally used. Every other case is a parenthetical comment, possibly started life as marginal notes.
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Ben C. Smith »

Stuart wrote: Sat Jan 20, 2018 11:43 am Mark's cases are all parenthetical, and obviously that book's author's additions. They have the feel of being a gimmick for the audience, as in, "see this really happened in the Aramaic speaking part of the world, and these people were Jews." They serve no other purpose but color.
That is possible. But do you have an example of another ancient text which does this: putting native language on people's lips in his/her narrative, just for color? I am trying to find analogies. I have only one so far (the one from Josephus).
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Ben C. Smith »

That lone example (so far) from Josephus is instructive:

Josephus, Antiquities 5.9.2 §323: 323 Ἐλθοῦσαν δὲ Ῥούθην μετὰ τῆς πενθερᾶς εἰς τὴν Βηθλεέμων Βοώζης Ἀβιμελέχου συγγενὴς ὢν δέχεται ξενίᾳ. καὶ ἡ Ναάμις, προσαγορευόντων αὐτὴν ὀνομαστί, δικαιότερον εἶπε Μαρὰν καλεῖτέ με: σημαίνει δὲ καθ᾽ Ἑβραίων γλῶτταν ναάμις μὲν εὐτυχίαν, μαρὰ δὲ ὀδύνην. / 323 When Ruth was come with her mother-in-law to Bethlehem, Booz, who was near of kin to Elimelech, entertained her; and when Naomi was so called by her fellow citizens, according to her true name, she said, "You might more truly call me Mara." Now Naomi signifies in the Hebrew tongue happiness, and Mara, sorrow.

Josephus lets Naomi speak her own tongue (for one single word) here, and then translates both her actual name (Naomi) and her assumed "name" (Mara) from Hebrew transliteration (Μαράν) into Greek translation (ὀδύνην), just as we find in those examples from Mark (who likewise transliterates the Hebrew or Aramaic before translating it into Greek).

Compare the corresponding statement in Ruth LXX, however:

Ruth 1.20: 20 Καὶ εἶπεν πρὸς αὐτάς· μὴ δὴ καλεῖτέ με Νωεμιν· καλέσατέ με Πικράν, ὅτι ἐπικράνθη ἐν ἐμοὶ ὁ ἱκανὸς σφόδρα. / 20 And she said to them, "Do not call me Naomi; call me Mara [מָרָ֔א], for the Almighty has dealt very bitterly [הֵמַ֥ר] with me.

The LXX actually does its own translation, keeping the name pun intact in the target language (Greek). The name becomes Pikra (Πικράν) instead of Mara so that the Greek verb πικραίνω (pikrainô, to make bitter or embitter) may be meaningfully employed. The LXX actually avoids, in other words, putting foreign words in Naomi's mouth. Josephus does not; and nor does Mark with respect to Jesus' speech.

I am still looking for other textual analogies; basing hypotheses on a single example from Josephus does not seem right.
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Stuart »

Look at the common Matthew/Mark texts. In each case Mark adds to the common source a little Aramaic not found in Matthew. We get a discussion about what Corbin is, telling us about this exotic practice of those Jews. Clearly Mark thinks his audience has no clue what it means, so he translates.

The presence of the Aramaic phrase and translation in Matthew 27:46 makes one wonder if it was original or if the entire passage 27:46b-50a was a later addition brought in from Mark. Mark 15:34-36 looks like his own composition, complete with a doubling of "ninth hour" as is his style. The Lukan (and Marcionite) version is missing that block. He simply expires. Mark adds flavor to the account, or his source does.

BTW, I forgot a few more:

Matthew 1:23 Ἐμμανουήλ: ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον Μεθ' ἡμῶν ὁ θεός.
John 1:38 Ῥαββεί, ὃ λέγεται μεθερμηνευόμενον Διδάσκαλε
John 1:41 Μεσσίαν ̔ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον Χριστός
John 1:42 Κηφᾶς ̔ὃ ἑρμηνεύεται Πέτρος
John 4:25 Μεσσίας ἔρχεται, ὁ λεγόμενος Χριστός
John 20:16 λέγει αὐτῷ Ἐβραϊστί Ῥαββουνεί ̔ὃ λέγεται Διδάσκαλε
Acts 4:36 Ἰωσὴφ δὲ ὅ ἐπικληθεὶς Βαρναβᾶς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀποστόλων, ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον υἱὸς παρακλήσεως

Matthew 1:23 is different. While Ἐμμανουήλ is taken directly from LXX of Isaiah 7:14, the proof text reading requires understanding of the Hebrew. This is very interesting, because it confirms that the proof texts used by Matthew came from a circle that included Jewish speakers among the exegetes for his sect. This is the only "necessary" translation.

John seems to be defining terms, which seem to have been known but maybe not universally understood. He is the one who links the legend of Cephas to that of Peter (or rather in my model one of the redactors of John, as I am not at all convinced Peter even makes an appearance in the original Gospel). In any case I think it's a later addition because John shows no interest in characters from Apocryphal Acts, rather he is focused on presenting his different version of Jesus. Clearly the writer of John 1:42 has a different agenda than him. John 1:42 was very likely the source used by the deutero-Pauline interpolation of Galatians 2:6-7, where he used Peter instead of Cephas (oops!). Acts 4:36 similarly links the legends of Joseph and Barnabas.

Matthew 1:23 is a different case, and 1 Corinthians 16:22 is the only non-parenthetical usage of Hebrew or Aramaic transliteration.

I think Mark 15:34-36 is an illustration of Markan invention, given his double "9th hour" form, and double "loud voice" (v 34 and v 37). Note, just as I think the words "Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit!" are a Lukan invention; Mark 15:37 is closer to the original form. Anyway, Mark uses it for effect here. It's hard to say any of the others of Mark are anything more than color; Talitha being the best example, trying to be clever.
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Re: Foreign word or phrases in Greek texts.

Post by Ben C. Smith »

Stuart wrote: Sat Jan 20, 2018 12:57 pm Look at the common Matthew/Mark texts. In each case Mark adds to the common source a little Aramaic not found in Matthew. We get a discussion about what Corbin is, telling us about this exotic practice of those Jews. Clearly Mark thinks his audience has no clue what it means, so he translates.
Without analogies from other texts (not other gospels, but other ancient texts outside this textually incestuous circle) I am not sure whether to think that Mark is adding the foreign language in (for color) or that Matthew is taking it out so as to conform with convention.
BTW, I forgot a few more:

Matthew 1:23 Ἐμμανουήλ: ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον Μεθ' ἡμῶν ὁ θεός.
John 1:38 Ῥαββεί, ὃ λέγεται μεθερμηνευόμενον Διδάσκαλε
John 1:41 Μεσσίαν ̔ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον Χριστός
John 1:42 Κηφᾶς ̔ὃ ἑρμηνεύεται Πέτρος
John 4:25 Μεσσίας ἔρχεται, ὁ λεγόμενος Χριστός
John 20:16 λέγει αὐτῷ Ἐβραϊστί Ῥαββουνεί ̔ὃ λέγεται Διδάσκαλε
Acts 4:36 Ἰωσὴφ δὲ ὅ ἐπικληθεὶς Βαρναβᾶς ἀπὸ τῶν ἀποστόλων, ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον υἱὸς παρακλήσεως
I had forgotten the one from Acts; thanks. Still not really outside the gospel circle, though, since the first volume is a gospel (Luke).
Matthew 1:23 is different. While Ἐμμανουήλ is taken directly from LXX of Isaiah 7:14, the proof text reading requires understanding of the Hebrew. This is very interesting, because it confirms that the proof texts used by Matthew came from a circle that included Jewish speakers among the exegetes for his sect. This is the only "necessary" translation.
Agreed.
John seems to be defining terms, which seem to have been known but maybe not universally understood. He is the one who links the legend of Cephas to that of Peter (or rather in my model one of the redactors of John, as I am not at all convinced Peter even makes an appearance in the original Gospel).
In my view, which is highly sympathetic to the notion that Cephas and Peter are not the same person, Matthew and Mark both already thought of Peter and Cephas as the same person. They got both his most striking character trait (starting strong, finishing weak) and his membership in a special triumvirate (with James and John) from Galatians. (I am not sure what you think of Galatians, though; I regard it as Pauline, century I, with probable interpolations. I have also toyed with different ways of reading the Peter/Cephas evidence in its manuscript tradition.)
Acts 4:36 similarly links the legends of Joseph and Barnabas.
What legends of Joseph are you referring to?
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